The history of how non-reservation Native communities of the mid-Columbia River region acquired distinct social identities. Often defined in opposition to official tribal categories, such as Yakama and Umatilla, Columbia River Indian identity gradually coalesced around a shared heritage of aboriginal connection to the river, resistance to the reservation system, and relative detachment from federal and tribal governance. Although most moved to the reservations, their largely untold story highlights the persistence of Native people in off-reservation settings and illustrates the emergence of new ethnic identities among American Indians.

I welcome suggestions regarding theoretical literature and primary sources beyond those in the National Archives. In addition, I would appreciate assistance in building a list of contacts for oral interviews.